3.2.1Data & Information
Data and information can exist in various forms or types. These are defined by the characteristics of the data or information. Data can be presented as text, numbers, sounds and images. 
Primary data is unprocessed, or raw, data. 
Secondary data has already been processed by someone else. 
The characteristics of information include the nature, structure and form:
  • the nature ­ formal or informal
  • the structure ­ detailed or summarised
  • the form ­ received by seeing or hearing?

3.2.2Formats & Conventions
Formats and conventions can be used to improve the appearance of the information solution. 
These include:
  • templates or layouts 
  • the style, size and colour of font 
  • heading hierarchies
  • headers and footers
  • screen colours
  • white space.

3.2.3Value & Suitability of Information
The value of information is improved by its quality. 
Aspects of good quality information include:
  • Completeness—there is no relevant information missing
  • Accuracy—the information is valid and correct
  • Clarity—the information is expressed and presented simply and clearly
  • Relevance—the information does not contain pointless or confusing details
  • Timeliness—the information is current and up-to-date.

3.2.4Hardware & Software Capabilities & Limitations
You need to make sure that you select the right hardware and software for the tasks that you want to perform. It is not necessary to spend large amounts of money on a computer with a very fast processor if the software you are using does not need it. 
However, if you bought a computer with the minium processing power required to run the software, you may not be able to expand or change your system very easily to suit the changing needs of the organisation.

3.2.5Using Information
Different types of organisations focus on different types of activities. 
The information within the organisation is geared to the focus of the organisation. Within the organisation, people with different levels of responsibility require and use different information, for example: 
  • managers need formal and summarised information
  • sales and marketing staff use information to persuade customers to buy products
  • accounts department staff use detailed, numerical information. On an individual level, information can be used:
  • to create solutions that inform about current events
  • to persuade people to assist in making decisions about purchases of goods or services
  • to educate and increase the level of understanding of a concept
  • to entertain and amuse.

3.2.6Information Problems
Information problems occur when:
  • there are no systems or procedures for producing the information required
  • the systems and procedures for producing information do not work efficiently or effectively.

3.2.7A Problem-Solving Methodology
To solve information problems effectively, you need to follow a process and document the process as you work through it. One process or methodology for solving information problems is:
  • analyse—work out exactly what the problem is
  • design—plan a solution that would work
  • develop—create the designed solution
  • test—check that the solution works in every case
  • document—record the problem solving processes
  • implement—start using the solution
  • evaluate—check that the solution meets expectations.

3.2.8Problem Analysis Methods
Problem analysis involves examining the input, processing and output requirements closely to make sure that the problem is completely understood. Analysing these steps may involve consulting staff, customers, managers and experts. 
You also need to consider the constraints on the solution. These may limit the time or money that can be spent on creating the information product required.

3.2.9Design of Solutions and Outputs
When solving information problems, you need to demonstrate how the solution will be produced. Describing the process in words or writing a lengthy description takes too long and does not really show what the solution will look like. 
Some more graphic methods of documenting and demonstrating design include:
  • flowcharts
  • input/process/output charts
  • storyboards
  • hierarchy charts
  • mock-ups
  • data-flow diagrams.

3.2.10Techniques for Validating Data
Data validation involves checking that the data itself is correct, and that it is up-to-date and from a reliable source. 
You also need to make sure that the data is entered correctly. 
You can check this manually, by proof-reading and cross-checking against the original data source. 
You can also validate data electronically. Some electronic methods include:
  • error messages
  • range checks
  • spell checks
  • data-type validation.

3.2.11Solution Attributes
You need to test each stage of the solution, input processing and output. 
For each of these stages need to make sure that: 
  • it works as expected
  • it is easy to read, see, hear and understand 
  • it is easy to use
  • it is easy to get into and navigate
  • it gets the message across.

3.2.12Data & Information - Complex Documents
Data and information can exist in various forms or types. These are defined by the characteristics of the data or information. Data can be presented as text, numbers, sounds and images. 
Primary data is unprocessed, or raw, data. 
Secondary data has already been processed by someone else. 
The characteristics of information include the nature, structure and form:
  • the nature ­ formal or informal
  • the structure ­ detailed or summarised
  • the form ­ received by seeing or hearing?

3.2.13Testing Techniques
You need to make sure that the solution works effectively and efficiently. 
You can do this by testing the attributes discussed in Solution Attributes before you implement full operation by the users. Some techniques that you could use include:
  • Observation of test users: do they find the system easy to use?
  • User survey: is the interface user-friendly, is the output easy to read?
  • Measurement: how long does input, processing and output take?
  • Input test data sets: does the solution reject invalid data and perform calculations correctly?

3.2.14Effectiveness of Solutions and Output
A solution is effective if it meets the expectations of the users. 
Factors that influence the effectiveness of a solution include: 
  • functionality, 
  • presentation, 
  • useability, 
  • accessibility and 
  • communication of message.

3.2.15Characteristics of Audiences
Information must be relevant to the audience if it is to be effective. 
Audiences have characteristics that you need to take into account. You should check the audience characteristics below and make sure that your information is relevant, accessible and respectful:
  • gender
  • special needs
  • culture
  • age
  • education
  • status
  • location.

3.2.16Information Processing Steps
Information processing must be very well organised and methodical. As in problem solving, it is helpful to follow a system of steps to ensure that all aspects of processing are addressed. 
Typically theses steps are: 
  • acquisition
  • input
  • validation
  • manipulation
  • storage
  • retrieval
  • output
  • communication
  • disposal.

3.2.17Manipulating Data/Information
You can manipulate or process data using software with functions including:
  • calculating
  • summarising
  • sorting
  • formatting
  • graphing.

3.2.18Producing and Handling Data/Information
You can ensure effective file management by creating and following procedures to:
  • name and store files so that they are easily found
  • save files regularly as you work (e.g., every 20 minutes)
  • back up files according to a system and store the back-ups off-site
  • install software and procedures to prevent damage caused by malignant programs such as computer viruses.